Collins Weitz, Margaret (1995). Sisters in the Resistance - How Women Fought to Free France 1940-1945. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
.F. Ellis, G. R. G. Allen, A. E. Warhurst (2004). Victory in the West: The Battle of Normandy. United Kingdom: Naval & )Military Press Ltd. ISBN 1845740580.
Sumner, Ian (1998). The French Army 1939-45 (2). London: Osprey Publishing.
Jackson, Julian (2003). France: The Dark Years, 1940-1944. USA: Oxford University Press.
Suhl, Yuri (1987). They Fought Back. New York: Schocken.
Marshall, Bruce [1952] (2001). The White Rabbit: The Secret Agent the Gestapo Could Not Crack. London: Cassell & Co.
Spartacus Educational: 1997-now (updated reguarly, huge database) (UK) (John Simkin) This was a website with both an excellent summary of the events of the FR as well as details. The links for each piece provided me with important details about events that occured. While I did not copy anything wholesale from this site, I used it so many times that I decided not to place his name after all the info I used from this website.
Wikipedia as a stepping stone.
Tuesday, March 18, 2008
Methods: How they did what they did
Because the total number of resistance solders and aids totaled only around 400,000, and because few of these members were actually willing or able to take on combat roles, the Resistance could not face the Germans in the open. The Resistance movement was based mainly around espionage, guerilla warfare, sabotage and propaganda. During and after the invasion of Normandy the French rose up to aid the allies, but until that point in time, few if any pitched battles took place.
Distribution of propaganda and information: The distribution of news untainted by the Nazis was extremely important. Because the French could not trust the Nazis and the Vichy government to give an honest description of how the war was going, French people relied on the BBC along with other French radio stations and free papers to provide them with news, warnings and instructions. Papers such as Défense de la France, a newspaper printed and circulated in the occupied North of France, was a paper that mixed propaganda with news of victories by the Allies coupled with atrocities by the Axis to stir resistance feeling. Though at first not loyal to De Gaulle, it eventually became directly linked to the FPG.
(The cover from a 1943 issue) The writing and or distribution of rebellious literature was one of the most basic forms of resistance. Those who did not want to risk their lives in battle would work in these papers.
Sabotage: The act of Sabotage was one of the most commonly practiced forms of active resistance. Sabotage ranged everywhere from stabbing government official’s tires to planting bombs in munitions factories and German barracks. The most common forms of Sabotage were destruction of railways and bridges to hinder German movement and cause them to lose money, men and supplies. Originally explosive sabotage was done with stolen dynamite. But eventually the French learned to make their own, or used the hundreds of Drops done by British planes.(Marshall, The White Rabbit, p. 20) One group of French and Spanish communists, (the infamous Spanish Maquis) was credited with the destruction of over four hundred railways, fifty-eight locomotives, thirty-five railway bridges, and fifty telephone lines. (Gelhorn, The Undefeated)
Espionage: The act of spying could be carried out by anyone. Consequently spying and intelligence gathering was the most common form of Resistance. Workers in factories or servants to officials would listen and observe. This information would eventually make its way to government officials in England. One of the greatest contributions of resistance espionage to the war occurred in the days leading up to D-day. Resistance spies located safe areas for parachute troopers as well as mapping the German seawall and anti-ship defenses up the coast. Thousands upon thousands more allied deaths would have occurred without the aid of French spies. (Marshall, The White Rabbit, p. 20) However, if caught, Espionage agents would be executed, usually without a trial, although some were made into public spectacles.
The most extreme and direct for of Resistance was armed. Bands of French soldiers would ambush coveys or patrols with small arms and pre planted bombs. One of the main goals of these groups was high profile assassinations. Attempted assassinations, many of them successful, were at first common place during the resistance. However, as these attempts went on Nazi and Vichy officials began executing large numbers of civilians in the areas where the killings had gone on. This discouraged high profile killings, but did little to stem attacks on common Wermont soldiers. Armed resistance was not organized or widespread until the invasion of Normandy. As the allies landed across France, hundreds of thousands rose in arms to aid the allies. By attacking and hindering German recruits being sent to the front lines, the resistance fighters were able to allow the Allies enough breathing room to push the Nazis back.
Distribution of propaganda and information: The distribution of news untainted by the Nazis was extremely important. Because the French could not trust the Nazis and the Vichy government to give an honest description of how the war was going, French people relied on the BBC along with other French radio stations and free papers to provide them with news, warnings and instructions. Papers such as Défense de la France, a newspaper printed and circulated in the occupied North of France, was a paper that mixed propaganda with news of victories by the Allies coupled with atrocities by the Axis to stir resistance feeling. Though at first not loyal to De Gaulle, it eventually became directly linked to the FPG.
(The cover from a 1943 issue) The writing and or distribution of rebellious literature was one of the most basic forms of resistance. Those who did not want to risk their lives in battle would work in these papers.
Sabotage: The act of Sabotage was one of the most commonly practiced forms of active resistance. Sabotage ranged everywhere from stabbing government official’s tires to planting bombs in munitions factories and German barracks. The most common forms of Sabotage were destruction of railways and bridges to hinder German movement and cause them to lose money, men and supplies. Originally explosive sabotage was done with stolen dynamite. But eventually the French learned to make their own, or used the hundreds of Drops done by British planes.(Marshall, The White Rabbit, p. 20) One group of French and Spanish communists, (the infamous Spanish Maquis) was credited with the destruction of over four hundred railways, fifty-eight locomotives, thirty-five railway bridges, and fifty telephone lines. (Gelhorn, The Undefeated)
Espionage: The act of spying could be carried out by anyone. Consequently spying and intelligence gathering was the most common form of Resistance. Workers in factories or servants to officials would listen and observe. This information would eventually make its way to government officials in England. One of the greatest contributions of resistance espionage to the war occurred in the days leading up to D-day. Resistance spies located safe areas for parachute troopers as well as mapping the German seawall and anti-ship defenses up the coast. Thousands upon thousands more allied deaths would have occurred without the aid of French spies. (Marshall, The White Rabbit, p. 20) However, if caught, Espionage agents would be executed, usually without a trial, although some were made into public spectacles.
The most extreme and direct for of Resistance was armed. Bands of French soldiers would ambush coveys or patrols with small arms and pre planted bombs. One of the main goals of these groups was high profile assassinations. Attempted assassinations, many of them successful, were at first common place during the resistance. However, as these attempts went on Nazi and Vichy officials began executing large numbers of civilians in the areas where the killings had gone on. This discouraged high profile killings, but did little to stem attacks on common Wermont soldiers. Armed resistance was not organized or widespread until the invasion of Normandy. As the allies landed across France, hundreds of thousands rose in arms to aid the allies. By attacking and hindering German recruits being sent to the front lines, the resistance fighters were able to allow the Allies enough breathing room to push the Nazis back.
Women in the Resistance
The majority of women who fought in the Resistance did not take combat roles. This was due more to a cultural bias against them than anything else. Though they were writers and distributors of news, and to a lesser extent, spies, few women were given assignments such as shooting a Vichy official or sabotaging a bridge. (Jackson, France: The dark Years, P. 490)
The only women now recognized to have taken a leadership role was Marie-Madeleine Fourcade who headed a rescue and information part, and later a leadership role for the Alliance Network in England.
However, the soldiers, mostly communists and Spanish hiding in the dense forests and mountains that bordered Spain, were more willing to take on unorthadox recruits. There, some women joined the Spanish and French communists fighters, who would go on to become one of the most successful independent resistance movements. (Collins, Weitz, Sisters in the Resistance, pp.65-67)
(A photograph of Spanish and French Maquis soldiers, including a woman)
The only women now recognized to have taken a leadership role was Marie-Madeleine Fourcade who headed a rescue and information part, and later a leadership role for the Alliance Network in England.
However, the soldiers, mostly communists and Spanish hiding in the dense forests and mountains that bordered Spain, were more willing to take on unorthadox recruits. There, some women joined the Spanish and French communists fighters, who would go on to become one of the most successful independent resistance movements. (Collins, Weitz, Sisters in the Resistance, pp.65-67)
(A photograph of Spanish and French Maquis soldiers, including a woman)
Monday, March 17, 2008
Diversity: some of the more noteable resistance groups
(A German poster showing the members of a communist resistance movement who have been executed)
The number and diversity of Freedom fighters was immense. Soldiers and citizens from all walks of life organized their own gangs, which in turn would work together on a particular task. Most of these parties were loyal to a particular political ideal, region, or religion, though most were openly loyal or at least worked in collaboration with the Free French Forces.
The largest and most organized group of fighters were the Free French Forces (.F. Ellis, Allen, Warhurst.Victory in the West p. 573-584). These soldiers represented the French Provisional Government and were often the most well informed as well as the most well trained (because many were former soldiers) (Sumner, The French Army, pp. 29-30)
The majority of French Resistance fighters outside the control of the Free French were from radical political groups. These groups, usually nationalist or communist, would work to an extent with the French Provisional Government (though the communists more often took orders from the USSR) but for the most part attempted to stay independent. (Jackson, France: The Dark Years, pp.114-115)
The communists in particular would not engage in active resistance until the invasion of the USSR, at which time they began to actively organize. The communists ended up being the most successful of the groups outside control of the FPG. By 1941 they had committed several high profile assassinations and sabotages. (Jackson, France: The Dark Years, p. 121) Many of these Communists had fought during the Spanish Civil war, and as a result, were hardened and well practiced to guerilla warfare.
Another group that had an exceptionally high percentage of its members join were the Jews. Despite only representing a tiny fraction of the French population, Jews made up nearly a quarter of Resistance members.(Suhl, They Fought Back, pp. 181-3) These Jewish Fighters had a reason to join in such numbers. The Vichy Government had passed laws that removed citizenship from Jews making it possible for Nazis to arrest them. Therefore, many Jews went into hiding; or worked for the resistance.
The BCRA network was a division of the Free French Army that focused almost entirely on espionage and information gathering. Organized out of former members of the French Intelligence Agency, they provided the allies with maps and photographs of German positions, weapons, and fortifications. The BCRA also participated, to a lesser extent, in assassination plots.
Lastly, a population of Spanish communists, and German, Italian, and to a lesser extent Austrian, anti-fascists moved to France to join or aid the resistance. The Spanish tended to join private groups, as they were working ultimately towards the downfall of Spanish fascists leader Franco. However, the Germans, Austrians and Italians worked directly along with the FPG to commit acts of sabotage, espionage and assassination.
Vichy Regime vs. Free French: A Question of Legitimacy
Vichy Regime: The Vichy Regime, as it was popularly called, was an emergency government appointed as defeat loomed, which worked to protect what little sovereignty France still had by willingly collaborating with the Nazis. It was famous for using its spies to infiltrate and ultimately turn over resistance workers and fighters to the Nazi authority.
The Vichy government ruled out of the "free" south of France. This area was referred to as Free because it was not occupied by the Germans. Though the Vichy government did, to an extent, capture and prevent spies from entering the south, it worked with the Germans to turn over thousands of Jews, resistance fighters and former politicians, many of whom were executed or sent off to forced labor camps. Because of this Collaboration, Vichy party members were often the targets of assassination by allied spies and Free French alike.
The Vichy government at first held control over a substantial number of French soldiers in Africa. However, by 1943, most of these soldiers had either deserted or been defeated by the Allies.
The Vichy Government was headed by Philippe Pétain, a hero from the First World War, who was given the title "Head of State" and had nearly absolute control of the government. Though at first welcomed as the savior of France, his harsh ultra-conservative polices and collaboration with the Nazis soon turned most of France against him. He also instituted a series of laws favoring Catholics as well as laws that stripped Jews of their citizenship thereby allowing the Nazis to arrest them.
Petain was eventually forcibly exiled to Germany as the Allies invaded France. After the war he was tried and found Guilty of treason. Though at first sentenced to execution, De Gaulle intervened and the "Head of the State" lived his few remaining years in prison.
The French Provisional Government, also known as the Free French Government, was composed of advisors and former military aids headed by General Charles de Gaulle who acted as prime minister. As a government in exile stationed in England, the French Provisional Government’s main interest was the expulsion of the Nazis from France. The Free French were the largest and most organized of the Resistance movements. They delivered radio broadcasts with uncorrupted news of the war via the BBC to France as well as providing weapons, information, orders, and men to the resistance. They worked with plants in France to smuggle Jews and enemies of the Vichy and Nazi government out of France as well as orchestratrating assassinations of prominent members of the German army and the Vichy Regime.
Another main goal of the Free French Forces was to keep control of colonies in North Africa. Free French African soldiers and foreign legion members fought those loyal to the Vichy Regime or the Nazis. By 1943 the Free French had bought a large amount of Armor and weapons via the lend-lease act and were able to commit to a stronger offensive. On top of this, many French soldiers in the Vichy forces deserted or surrendered to join the Free French cause. By late 1943 the main opponent of the French in North Africa were the Nazis.
The main mastermind behind the Free French Forces was De Gaulle. A strong opponent of appeasement for years before the war, and one of only a handful of commanders to have led the French on any successful counter attacks against the Nazi invasion, De Gaulle was greatly admired. He was on the war cabinet as the Nazis advanced across France and was the most vocal opponent of surrender. However, when he and his fellows were voted down, they fled with bags of golden franks given to them by the former French prime minister, and sailed across to England. There De Gaulle organized attacks against the Germans with the allies despite his great mistrust of the British. De Gaulle is also famous for preventing the execution of the Vichy Regime's "Head of State" Philippe Patain, whom he instead sentenced to life imprisonment.
The Legitimacy of these two governments was debated constantly. However, by late 1942, the Free French Forces had the moral and mental backing of the majority of France, despite being in exile.
Sunday, March 16, 2008
French Resistance, An overview
As France surrendered to Nazi Germany, French soldiers and government officials as well as French citizens began to organize resistance movements. Former generals and government leaders fled to England where they organized secret missions and sabotage attacks on the Nazis. Along with these more official "Free French" hundreds of private and individual resistance movements occurred. Citizens helped sneak Jews or people wanted by the Nazis into other countries such as England or the U.S. as well as assassinating collaborators, Nazis officials, and members of the Vichy Regime.
Because the majority of resistance fighters were under-equipped to challenge the Nazis and the puppet Vichy Regime in the open, most resistance fighters adopted a tactic of sabotage and guerilla warfare. Resistance fighters from all factions coordinated attacks and sabotages on Nazi positions during the days surrounding the invasion of Normandy.
The Resistance also played a key role in providing news and a morale boost to French citizens living in both France and England. Underground newspapers and radio stations informed French citizens of new victories against the Axis powers as well as providing resistance fighters with orders and warnings from the Free French Government living in England.
Because the majority of resistance fighters were under-equipped to challenge the Nazis and the puppet Vichy Regime in the open, most resistance fighters adopted a tactic of sabotage and guerilla warfare. Resistance fighters from all factions coordinated attacks and sabotages on Nazi positions during the days surrounding the invasion of Normandy.
The Resistance also played a key role in providing news and a morale boost to French citizens living in both France and England. Underground newspapers and radio stations informed French citizens of new victories against the Axis powers as well as providing resistance fighters with orders and warnings from the Free French Government living in England.
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